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English grammar for university writing

Grammar flashcards for university writers: comma splices, fragments, agreement, articles, parallelism, modifiers, tense and punctuation, with fixes.

41 cards6 topicsAbout 15 minutes a roundTypical first-year academic writing or EAP grammar and editing component

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About this deck

This deck is for university students who want to find and fix the grammar errors that most often cost marks in essays, lab reports and exams. It suits native speakers who never studied formal grammar as well as students using English as an additional language. The cards cover sentence boundaries (comma splices, run-ons and fragments), subject-verb and pronoun agreement, articles and countable and uncountable nouns, parallel structure and modifiers, verb tense and voice, and punctuation and commonly confused words.

You only need to know basic terms such as subject, verb, clause and noun. A clause is a group of words with its own subject and verb; an independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. Most cards show a flawed sentence and a corrected one so you can see the rule in action.

The best way to use the deck is alongside your own writing. Pick two or three error types that instructors have flagged on your past work, study those cards first, and then reread a draft hunting only for those errors. Reading a draft aloud slowly also catches many agreement and sentence-boundary problems.

Common mistakes this deck targets: joining two complete sentences with only a comma; letting a long phrase between subject and verb trick you into the wrong verb form (the results of the study shows); and dropping or overusing 'the' with general uncountable nouns such as research, information and evidence. Remember that grammar choices also depend on the style guide your course uses, so check APA or MLA rules where they apply.

Before you start: Basic knowledge of grammar terms (subject, verb, noun, clause); any level from upper-intermediate English upward.

All 41 cards

Cover the definitions with a sheet of paper and test yourself, or use the study modes above.

Sentence boundaries

Comma splice: An error where two independent clauses are joined with only a comma. Fix it with a full stop, a semicolon, or a comma plus a coordinating conjunction.Example: Wrong: The lab ran late, we missed the bus. Right: The lab ran late, so we missed the bus.
Run-on (fused) sentence: Two independent clauses joined with no punctuation or conjunction at all.Example: Wrong: The data were clear the conclusion was not. Right: The data were clear; the conclusion was not.
Sentence fragment: A group of words punctuated as a sentence but missing a subject, a main verb, or a complete thought.Example: Wrong: Because the sample was small. Right: Because the sample was small, the results are tentative.
Semicolon between clauses: Joins two closely related independent clauses without a conjunction. What comes on each side must be able to stand alone.Example: Attendance rose in fall; it fell again in winter.
Conjunctive adverbs: Words like however, therefore and moreover cannot join two clauses with only a comma; use a semicolon or full stop before them and a comma after.Example: Wrong: The test was easy, however, few passed. Right: The test was easy; however, few passed.
Coordinating conjunctions: The seven words for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. Put a comma before one when it joins two independent clauses.Example: The theory is elegant, but the evidence is weak.

Agreement

Subject-verb agreement: A singular subject takes a singular verb and a plural subject takes a plural verb, in the present tense and with forms of be.Example: Wrong: The student write. Right: The student writes; the students write.
Agreement across intervening phrases: A phrase between the subject and verb does not change the number. Find the real subject first.Example: Wrong: The results of the study shows. Right: The results of the study show.
Collective nouns: Words such as team, committee and government usually take a singular verb in Canadian and US English when the group acts as one; British usage often allows plural.Example: The committee has approved the budget.
Indefinite pronouns: Each, everyone, everybody, nobody and either are grammatically singular. Some, all and most depend on the noun they refer to.Example: Each of the samples was tested twice.
Either...or / neither...nor agreement: With these pairs, the verb agrees with the nearer subject.Example: Neither the professor nor the students were available. Neither the students nor the professor was available.
There is / there are: In these sentences the real subject follows the verb, so the verb agrees with what comes after it.Example: There are three reasons for the decline. There is one exception.
Pronoun-antecedent agreement: A pronoun must match the noun it replaces in number. Singular they is widely accepted (APA 7 recommends it) for a person of unspecified gender.Example: Each participant completed their survey. The groups submitted their reports.
Vague pronoun reference: A pronoun such as it, this or they with no clear noun to point back to. Add a noun after this or rewrite.Example: Unclear: This shows the effect. Clear: This increase shows the effect.

Articles and nouns

The definite article (the): Used when the reader knows which specific thing you mean: it was mentioned before, is unique, or is defined by a following phrase.Example: We tested a new drug. The drug lowered blood pressure.
A vs an: The choice depends on the first sound, not the letter: an before a vowel sound, a before a consonant sound.Example: an hour, an MRI scan, a university, a one-year program
Zero article: No article is used with plural or uncountable nouns that refer to things in general.Example: Wrong: The research shows the exercise improves the mood. Right: Research shows exercise improves mood.
Uncountable nouns: Nouns with no plural that cannot take a or an, such as research, information, evidence, advice, equipment and knowledge. Use a quantity word instead.Example: Wrong: three researches, an evidence. Right: three studies, a piece of evidence.
Fewer vs less: Fewer is for countable plurals; less is for uncountable amounts. In formal writing, keep them apart.Example: Fewer participants dropped out, so less time was needed.
Number vs amount: Number is used with countable nouns; amount with uncountable ones. 'The number of' takes a singular verb; 'a number of' takes a plural one.Example: The number of applicants has grown; the amount of funding has not.

Parallelism and modifiers

Parallel structure: Items in a list or comparison should share the same grammatical form: all nouns, all -ing forms, or all clauses.Example: Wrong: reading, to write and analysis. Right: reading, writing and analyzing.
Parallelism with paired conjunctions: With not only...but also, either...or and both...and, the words after each part must match in form.Example: Wrong: She not only designed the study but also the analysis. Right: She designed not only the study but also the analysis.
Parallel comparisons: Compare like with like; repeat 'that of' or 'those of' when needed so the comparison is logical.Example: Wrong: Canada's population is smaller than Mexico. Right: Canada's population is smaller than that of Mexico.
Dangling modifier: An opening phrase that does not logically describe the subject that follows it.Example: Wrong: After running the test, the results were clear. Right: After running the test, we found clear results.
Misplaced modifier: A word or phrase placed so it seems to describe the wrong thing. Put modifiers next to what they modify; watch only and almost.Example: Unclear: We only tested 20 samples. Clear: We tested only 20 samples.
That vs which (restrictive clauses): A restrictive clause identifies which thing you mean and takes no commas (often that); a non-restrictive one adds extra information between commas (which).Example: The samples that failed were discarded. The samples, which arrived late, were all usable.

Verbs and tense

Tense consistency: Do not switch tense within a passage unless the time actually changes.Example: Wrong: The author argues that cities grow and then claimed they shrink. Right: ...argues... claims...
Reporting research: APA asks for past tense or present perfect when describing earlier studies (Smith found, researchers have shown); literature essays usually discuss texts in the present.Example: APA: Lee (2021) found a link. Literature essay: In the novel, Hagar refuses help.
Present perfect vs simple past: Present perfect (has or have + participle) links the past to now or leaves time unstated; simple past is for a finished time.Example: Researchers have studied this since 1990. Researchers studied it in 1990.
Passive voice: Subject receives the action (was measured). Useful when the actor is unknown or unimportant, as in methods sections, but overuse can hide who did what.Example: Active: We measured the samples. Passive: The samples were measured.
Conditional sentences: Real conditions use present + will; unreal present ones use past + would. Do not put would in the if-clause.Example: Wrong: If the sample would be larger, results would improve. Right: If the sample were larger, results would improve.
Gerund vs infinitive: Some verbs take -ing (suggest, avoid, consider), others take to + verb (want, decide, plan).Example: Wrong: The authors suggest to repeat the trial. Right: The authors suggest repeating the trial.

Punctuation and word choice

Its vs it's: Its is possessive (no apostrophe); it's always means it is or it has.Example: It's clear that the company changed its policy.
Affect vs effect: Usually affect is the verb (to influence) and effect is the noun (a result). Effect as a verb means to bring about.Example: Sleep affects memory; the effect is strongest in teens.
Possessive apostrophes: Add 's for one owner and s' for a regular plural owner; irregular plurals take 's.Example: one student's notes, two students' notes, the children's results
Colon use: A colon follows a complete independent clause and introduces a list, explanation or example. Do not put one between a verb and its object.Example: Wrong: The causes are: cost and time. Right: There are two causes: cost and time.
Semicolons in complex lists: When list items already contain commas, separate the items with semicolons for clarity.Example: Sites included Halifax, Nova Scotia; Regina, Saskatchewan; and Victoria, British Columbia.
Who vs whom: Who acts as a subject, whom as an object. Test with he or him: if him fits, use whom.Example: The researcher who led the study... The participant to whom we sent the form...
i.e. vs e.g.: i.e. means that is (restating exactly); e.g. means for example (giving some instances). Both are often limited to parentheses in formal writing.Example: Use a primary source (i.e., the original study). Use reputable databases (e.g., PubMed).
Double comparatives and negatives: Do not combine more with an -er form, or two negatives in standard written English.Example: Wrong: more better; didn't find no effect. Right: better; found no effect.
Dependent prepositions: Many words take a fixed preposition that must be learned: depend on, interested in, research on, responsible for, consist of.Example: Wrong: The result depends of the sample. Right: The result depends on the sample.