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Academic English vocabulary
University-level academic English vocabulary: words for argument, analysis, research, trends and logic, each with a clear definition and an original example.
45 cards6 topicsAbout 20 minutes a roundTypical university EAP (English for Academic Purposes) or first-year academic literacy course
About this deck
This deck is for students who read and write in English at university, especially those using English as an additional language and anyone in an EAP or bridging program. It focuses on the general academic words that appear across subjects, from biology lab reports to history essays: words for making and weighing claims, describing analysis, talking about research and evidence, describing change and trends, expressing logical relationships, and hedging. Researchers have built lists of such high-frequency academic words (the best known is the Academic Word List); this deck is written independently and picks words learners often misuse.
You should be at roughly an intermediate level of English (B1 to B2) to get the most from it. Each card gives the part of speech, a definition in plain words and an original example sentence in an academic style.
Study actively. After reading a card, write your own sentence using the word in your subject area, and note the words that usually come with it (for example, 'conduct a study', 'a significant increase'). Learn related forms too: analyze, analysis, analytical. Revisit the deck when you are editing an essay and look for chances to replace vague words like 'thing', 'big' or 'show'.
Common mistakes: using impressive words in the wrong grammar pattern (writing 'comprised of' where 'composed of' or 'comprises' is safer); confusing imply and infer; and treating significant as a general synonym for large in a paper that also reports statistics, where it has a technical meaning.
Before you start: Intermediate English (about B1 to B2) and some experience reading academic texts.
All 45 cards
Cover the definitions with a sheet of paper and test yourself, or use the study modes above.
Arguing and claiming
- assert (v.)
- To state a claim firmly and confidently, usually as fact. Noun: assertion.Example: The author asserts that remote work raises productivity, but offers little data.
- contend (v.)
- To argue or maintain a position, often against an opposing view. Noun: contention.Example: Critics contend that the policy benefits only large firms.
- advocate (v.)
- To publicly support or recommend a course of action. As a verb it takes a direct object with no 'for'; the noun (a supporter) does take 'for'.Example: The report advocates stricter limits on plastic packaging.
- refute (v.)
- To prove that a claim is wrong using evidence or reasoning. Simply disagreeing is not enough; for that, use reject or dispute.Example: The second study refuted the earlier claim by finding no effect in a larger sample.
- concede (v.)
- To admit that a point is true, often reluctantly, before continuing an argument. Noun: concession.Example: The writer concedes that the program is expensive but argues it saves money over time.
- undermine (v.)
- To weaken something gradually or make it less effective or believable.Example: Missing data undermine the reliability of the survey results.
- underpin (v.)
- To support or form the basis of an idea, theory or system.Example: Two assumptions underpin the model: rational buyers and perfect information.
- arguably (adv.)
- Used to say a claim can reasonably be defended, while signalling that others may disagree.Example: The printing press was arguably the most important invention of its century.
Analyzing and describing
- analyze (v.)
- To examine something in detail by breaking it into parts to understand how they work or relate. Canadian and US spelling; British usually uses -yse.Example: The paper analyzes 400 survey responses from first-year students.
- assess (v.)
- To judge the size, quality, value or importance of something, often by measuring it. Noun: assessment.Example: Nurses assess each patient's pain on a scale from 0 to 10.
- evaluate (v.)
- To judge how good, useful or effective something is against criteria. Noun: evaluation.Example: Students must evaluate two competing theories and recommend one.
- interpret (v.)
- To explain the meaning of information, data or a text. Noun: interpretation.Example: Researchers interpreted the drop in sales as a sign of changing tastes.
- synthesize (v.)
- To combine ideas or findings from several sources into a coherent new whole. Noun: synthesis.Example: A literature review should synthesize studies rather than summarize them one by one.
- inherent (adj.)
- Existing as a natural, permanent part of something rather than being added from outside.Example: Some risk is inherent in any surgery.
- implicit (adj.)
- Suggested or understood without being stated directly.Example: The question contains an implicit assumption that the policy has failed.
- explicit (adj.)
- Stated clearly and directly, leaving no room for doubt.Example: The assignment gives explicit instructions on citation style.
- constitute (v.)
- To form or make up something, or to count as something.Example: Women constitute 58 percent of the program's students.
Research and evidence
- hypothesis (n.)
- A testable prediction or proposed explanation that a study is designed to check. Plural: hypotheses.Example: The hypothesis was that students who sleep more would score higher on the quiz.
- empirical (adj.)
- Based on observation, measurement or experiment rather than on theory or reasoning alone.Example: There is little empirical evidence for the claim.
- methodology (n.)
- The overall approach and set of methods used in a study, along with the reasons for choosing them.Example: The methodology section explains how participants were recruited.
- variable (n.)
- A factor that can change or be changed in a study. Independent ones are manipulated; dependent ones are measured.Example: Hours of study was the independent variable; exam score was the dependent one.
- data (n.)
- Facts or measurements collected for analysis. Plural of datum; often treated as a singular mass noun in general writing, but many sciences keep it plural.Example: The data were collected over six months. (Plural use common in science.)
- sample (n.)
- The group selected from a larger population for study, ideally chosen so that it represents the whole.Example: The sample of 1200 adults was drawn from all ten provinces.
- valid (adj.)
- Measuring or showing what it claims to; also, logically sound. Noun: validity.Example: A bathroom scale that is off by 2 kg is reliable if consistent, but not valid.
- reliable (adj.)
- Giving consistent results when repeated, or trustworthy as a source. Noun: reliability.Example: The test is reliable: students scored almost the same when retested a week later.
- bias (n.)
- A systematic tendency that distorts results or judgment in one direction. Adjective form ends in -ed; a study can be skewed by it.Example: Surveying only gym members introduced bias into the fitness study.
- phenomenon (n.)
- An observable fact or event, especially one that is studied. Plural: phenomena.Example: Urban heat islands are a well-documented phenomenon.
- criterion (n.)
- A standard or test used to judge or decide something. Plural: criteria.Example: The main criterion for selection was academic performance.
Change and trends
- fluctuate (v.)
- To rise and fall irregularly over time. Noun: fluctuation.Example: Fuel prices fluctuated between 1.40 and 1.70 dollars per litre.
- decline (v., n.)
- To become smaller, weaker or fewer; as a noun, a decrease. Formal alternative to go down.Example: Enrolment declined from 900 to 810, a decline of 10 percent.
- surge (n., v.)
- A sudden, large increase.Example: The app saw a surge in downloads during exam week.
- plateau (n., v.)
- A period when something stops rising and stays at about the same level.Example: Sales rose until 2020 and then plateaued at about 5000 units a year.
- substantial (adj.)
- Large in amount, size or importance.Example: The new process produced substantial savings.
- marginal (adj.)
- Very small, or at the edge of something; in economics, relating to one additional unit.Example: The change in price had only a marginal effect on demand.
Relationships and logic
- imply (v.)
- To suggest something without saying it directly. The writer or speaker does this; compare infer, done by the reader.Example: The results imply that early feedback improves grades.
- infer (v.)
- To reach a conclusion from evidence or hints. The reader or researcher does this.Example: From the rising rents, we can infer that demand for housing is strong.
- derive (v.)
- To obtain or develop something from a source. Usually followed by from, often in the passive.Example: Many English words are derived from Latin.
- correlate (v.)
- To have a mutual relationship in which one thing changes along with another. A correlation does not prove that one causes the other.Example: Hours of sleep correlated with test scores, but other factors may explain both.
- comprise (v.)
- To consist of or be made up of. Careful writers say 'the course comprises six units' and avoid 'comprised of'.Example: The committee comprises five faculty members and two students.
- consequently (adv.)
- As a result. A formal linking adverb; after a full sentence, use a semicolon or a full stop before it.Example: Funding was cut; consequently, the clinic reduced its hours.
- whereas (conj.)
- Used to contrast two facts in one sentence, comparing one with the other.Example: Urban students tended to commute by transit, whereas rural students drove.
- albeit (conj.)
- Although; used before a word or phrase, not a full clause, to add a limitation.Example: The plan worked, albeit more slowly than expected.
- notwithstanding (prep., adv.)
- In spite of; despite. Formal, and it can come before or after its noun.Example: Notwithstanding its limitations, the study offers useful insights.
Hedging and precision
- tend to (v.)
- To be likely to do something or to happen often. A common hedge that avoids overclaiming.Example: First-year students tend to underestimate reading time.
- significant (adj.)
- Important or large enough to matter; in statistics, unlikely to be due to chance at the chosen threshold. Do not mix the meanings in a results section.Example: The difference was statistically significant (p = 0.01).