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Reading & writing · Grades 9–12

Academic arguments, evidence and qualification

A defensible argument states a specific claim rather than an unlimited assertion. The intended audience and purpose determine the required scope.

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Prerequisites

Relevant school subject foundations and careful reasoning.

Study notes

Claim

A defensible argument states a specific claim rather than an unlimited assertion. The intended audience and purpose determine the required scope.

Evidence

Evidence should be relevant and sufficient for the claim. A quoted authority does not automatically support an unrelated conclusion.

Warrant

Explain why the evidence bears on the claim. Counterexamples and alternative explanations help test the reasoning.

Integrity

Paraphrase accurately, identify sources and distinguish quotations from your own analysis. Do not fabricate citations or certainty.

Worked examples

Which claim is more appropriately scoped?

The scoped claim matches a bounded dataset.

In the supplied sample, later buses were more often delayed

What is a warrant in an argument?

The warrant explains the inference.

The reasoning linking evidence to a claim

Check your understanding

  1. Revise the unsupported claim Everyone learns best from videos to make it testable.

  2. What should a counterargument address?

    1. A plausible objection to the reasoning
    2. A random unrelated topic
    3. The paper size
    4. Only an insult to the author

  3. Why does one example not generally establish a universal claim?

  4. Which is proper paraphrasing?

    1. Restate the meaning accurately and cite the source
    2. Change a few words and claim original research
    3. Invent a page reference
    4. Reverse the author's uncertainty

Answers and marking guidance

Answers and marking notes
  1. Specify a learner group, task, comparison method and measured outcome, then phrase the claim as a hypothesis rather than universal certainty.

    Credit bounded population and measurable comparison.

  2. A plausible objection to the reasoning

    Strong arguments engage relevant alternatives.

  3. A universal statement concerns all relevant cases; a single confirming example leaves other cases untested and may be unrepresentative.

    Credit quantifier scope.

  4. Restate the meaning accurately and cite the source

    Paraphrasing preserves meaning and attribution.

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